The Changing Contours of World Mission and Christianity: The appeal and growth of "Marginal" churches

The Changing Contours of World Mission and Christianity: The appeal and growth of "Marginal" churches: Editor’s note: The following post arises from small group reflections from The Rise of Global Christianity, 1910–2010, taught by Dr. Todd Johnson at Boston University in the Fall of 2010. Led by doctoral students, the small groups discussed lectures given by Christian scholars in various disciplines, including significant changes that have occurred in global Christianity over the past 100 years.

Our topic of discussion in Global Christianity for October 20 was ‘Marginal’ Christianity. Our main textbook for the course, The Atlas of Global Christianity, uses the term ‘marginal’ to describe Christian groups who are distinct from Orthodox, Catholic and Protestant groups because of divergent views on commonly accepted confessions such as the Trinity and the person of Jesus Christ, or if the authority of a leader or another scripture supersedes these confessions.

Our guest speaker Matthew Bowman provided a compelling history over the last 100 years on the second largest marginal Christian group, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (LDS, is the largest faction of the group commonly referred to as Mormons). Mr. Bowman focused our attention on the changing policies of the LDS church that made global expansion possible. He emphasized a shift from a policy of ‘the gathering’ - where the Kingdom of God was envisioned as a new Zion and followers gathered together in Utah - to reforms that encouraged expansion, such as building new temples, a lifting of the ban on priesthood from males of African descent, the policy of ‘correlation’ extending connections to churches outside Utah headquarters, and a call to engage in missions abroad for young men. These changes allowed the LDS church to expand globally.

Demographically speaking, marginal Christians, although small in number, have experienced extraordinary growth rates worldwide. Among the groups we discussed were Mormons, Jehovah’s Witnesses, the Unification church led by Reverend Moon (sometimes called the Moonies), and The Family International (or Children of God) initiated by David Berg.

Although none in our group had any interpersonal contact with marginal Christians, many of us expressed an interest in learning more about these groups and what attracts followers to them. “When I first learned about them as a young Christian,” Sam said, “their odd beliefs made me take a step back from investigating these movements. When I entered academia, their oddness instead drew me to them and to studying the circumstances of their historical and social development.”

The main questions for us trying to understand why some marginal Christians are growing at such a rapid pace: what might be some of the factors that account for growth? What would make conversion so appealing? One postulation is each group makes an unequivocal truth claim about what it means to be the truly Christian. This confidence and conviction might be an important attraction for many people. Sam observed that within a world of globalization and post-modernity, where identity and belief are so fractured and unstable, the conviction of marginal groups may offer stability in the midst of change and volatility.

Another factor we discussed was the communal solidary joining a marginal church or movement provides. Precisely because of belief in a unique truth claim, adherents may feel particularly special. Members may have a deep sense belonging and commonality with other members. The community looks out for each other more than other Christian groups might, just from being, for example, Presbyterian, or Roman Catholic. This does impose a certain moral rigor and limitation on people who belong to the community. Further, in some cases, there is more emphasis on common life, or belonging, than in believing the same things—which might be characterized in Mormonism. Mr. Bowman pointed this out as an ‘orthopraxy.’ Further, Sam proposed that this might be because of the intellectual freedom provided within Mormonism. It is uniquely postmodern in this way, and lends itself to absorbing others and allowing for a more communal existence without the rigors of extremely enforced intellectual tethers.

Globalization and post-modern strains on firm identities related to family and sexuality, such as the changing ideas of family, the emancipation of women, the sexual revolution and the decline of traditional marriage, also made for interesting discussion. Isaac pointed out the importance of family in the Unification Church, which is a major religious movement where he’s from in South Korea. For both the LDS and the Unification Church, a proper and blessed marriage and children in very ‘traditional’ bent are very important and made sacred and essential to salvation. A harking back to more ‘traditional’ values and making the hetero-sexual marriage union sacred could be a factor in their growth. At the same time young women are leaving Mormonism in North America in alarming numbers (some estimate a defection rate of 75%). Where Mormons and the Unification church went in one direction on family and sexuality, the Family International shows a different orientation completely. The Family, in quite opposite fashion, has embraced the sexual revolution. This church has also made sexuality sacred, but sees sexual relations with many (heterosexual) partners as a way to enhance one’s relationship with Christ, and even to minister to others.

We left our discussion thinking further about not only the appeal and growth of marginal Christians but also how these groups are adapting to new challenges. We pushed ourselves to better understand their unique claims to truth and their struggle within competing Christian assertions of authenticity.

The Changing Contours of World Mission and Christianity: Learning from the Orthodox tradition

The Changing Contours of World Mission and Christianity: Learning from the Orthodox tradition: Editor’s note: The following post arises from small group reflections from The Rise of Global Christianity, 1910–2010, taught by Dr. Todd Johnson at Boston University in the Fall of 2010. Led by doctoral students, the small groups discussed lectures given by Christian scholars in various disciplines, including significant changes that have occurred in global Christianity over the past 100 years.

On the week of October 13th in the class on Global Christianity, Father Luke Veronis from Holy Cross Seminary gave a guest lecture on the Orthodox Church history and the impact on Orthodox missions, especially in the past century.

If we paint the history of Christianity in terms of broad strokes, one of the dominant colors would be the demographic shift of Christianity to the ‘global South’ in the last 100 years, a shift that has brought Christian growth in areas of the world where the gospel had no foothold a century ago. But the story of the Orthodox churches would be a counter stroke of a different color. Historically, the Orthodox churches are the oldest Christian traditions. They have a rich spiritual history that shaped early Christianity and the monastic traditions, and as far as missions go, they also have had many missionary champions. However, persecution, repression, and immigration have threatened many Orthodox traditions. This past century has witnessed the multiplying of such treats, through communist oppression in the former Soviet Union and other communist states, the repression and immigration across the Middle East, and the genocide committed against the Armenian people. But it is also a story of survival and resurgence, and hope for the future in other places that have opened up to newfound religious freedoms.

This counter story is all the more disheartening given the widespread lack of knowledge about Orthodoxy among many Christians. Indeed, several participants in our discussion group had not known of the Orthodox churches until this course. The learning experience has been a pleasant surprise. Some of the students expressed an appreciation for the mystical tradition of theosis and the profound encounter with God as mystery within the Orthodox traditions. In our discussion, Teasoeb contrasts this sense aptly: “I think the Orthodox have different, even alluringly mysterious liturgical styles, and although they seem to accept anyone who comes, they definitely do not expose their interior liturgical life like Western bodies do.”

Many in our discussion group were also intrigued by the Orthodox approaches to missions. Father Luke’s lecture stressed that at their best Orthodox models for missions were very respectful of local culture; the pace of missions was slow as to adapt to local culture and language, as well as built a strong base for local leadership … all this in a missionary tradition that flourished long before fervent Catholic and Protestant missions began. It seems that one of the Orthodox models for spreading the gospel was one of patience. Persecution, repression and the minority status of many churches (we can see this at the fall of the Byzantine empire, and more recently of communism), did cause many churches to retreat into a kind of survival mode. Father Luke proposed this may be a reason why many Orthodox churches lost touch with their missionary traditions.

One student, Myung Eun, remarked on their very different style of evangelism: “the Orthodox tend to evangelize people in a different way than Westerners. They do not go forward to evangelize people in the same strong or forceful manner. In Korea many Christian churches have grown in the last hundred years, but there is only one Orthodox church. The Orthodox churches don't use any “marketing” as other churches do to bring people in."

Some in our group were more cautious than others about the Orthodox version of history with regards to missions. Bruce and Jeff pointed out that the Orthodox may see themselves as the ‘underdogs’ of history compared to the Western churches. From this perspective they can differentiate themselves from the more extreme forms of Christian imperialism and cultural insensitivity.

Nevertheless, we could agree that Protestants and Catholics alike can learn much from the patience, the strong sense of continuity with ancient Christian tradition, the rich mystical theology, and the perseverance of the Orthodox churches.

The Changing Contours of World Mission and Christianity: Salvation in the African context

The Changing Contours of World Mission and Christianity: Salvation in the African context: Editor’s note: The following post arises from small group reflections from The Rise of Global Christianity, 1910–2010, taught by Dr. Todd Johnson at Boston University in the Fall of 2010. Led by doctoral students, the small groups discussed lectures given by Christian scholars in various disciplines, including significant changes that have occurred in global Christianity over the past 100 years.

The guest lecture for Global Christianity this week was Dr. Nimi Wariboko, who gave a general overview of African cultural and religious framework, and went on to discuss independent church movements in Africa and how they positively contextualize the gospel – resulting in high church growth. Two broad movements among independents are Pentecostal – Charismatic churches, and African Initiated Churches or African Independent Churches (AICs). In their own ways, both preach a message of concrete blessing, transformation and salvation for people in this lifetime. The focus on material blessing is sometimes called ‘prosperity gospel,’ a phrase almost exclusively used by those who find it in some way suspect. Our discussions centered on how to understand and evaluate a concept of salvation that emphasizes the present in African context.

We found Dr. Wariboko’s lecture very helpful since he put the preaching of so-called ‘prosperity gospel’ within the preview of an African framework. On one level, religion pervades all of life. Meaning, religion in Africa is neither isolated nor compartmentalized chronologically – postponing salvation into the future or afterlife. Neither can it be put in a separate ‘private’ sphere or emotion. Religion in general and Christianity by extension permeates the whole life of the believer, very much inclusive of physical and material existence. In this way, the Koreans in our discussion noted, a view of religion as integrated into all parts of life might not be so different than some Korean churches, particularly Full Gospel churches that are within the global family of the Pentecostal - Charismatic movement.

On another level, a ‘prosperity gospel’ represents hope that God can transform lives and liberate people in the here-and-now. This hope is an important message for people in deep economic, social, and even physical turmoil, as many people might struggle with poverty, disease, and the reality and consequences of war. We found an understanding of salvation that is holistic often rings true. It is especially attractive as African Christians also may focus on transformation of all the earth, humanity, animal life, and the restoration of all of nature.

The Changing Contours of World Mission and Christianity: Protestant-led ecumenical movements

The Changing Contours of World Mission and Christianity: Protestant-led ecumenical movements: Editor’s note: The following post arises from small group reflections from The Rise of Global Christianity, 1910–2010, taught by Dr. Todd Johnson at Boston University in the Fall of 2010. Lead by doctoral students, the small groups discussed lectures given by Christian scholars in various disciplines, including significant changes that have occurred in global Christianity over the past 100 years.

Our discussion this week centered on Protestantism over the last hundred years within the broader context of Global Christianity. The term ‘Protestant’ includes churches within what are often referred to as ‘mainline’ denominations. These churches have roots in the Reformation (including Lutheran, Reformed, Presbyterian, Methodist, and Congregationalist). Within Protestantism two important tensions surfaced: denominational division (both between mainline traditions and internal break-offs within a tradition), and the ecumenical movements of the past century initiated between Protestant churches. It became evident in our discussion that these tensions can be viewed as challenges or opportunities for renewal.

Historically the ecumenical movement began with Protestant churches as much for practical reasons as for theological commitment to Christian unity. The extensive complexity denominational divisions present head-scratching challenges for missions when several denominations ‘compete’ to present the gospel. It also threatens the long-term sustainability of small congregations of Protestant Christians coexisting in proximity but administered under different denominations. Ecumenical cooperation has the advantage of presenting a united front of Christian unity. It worked well in regions with small Christians populations where no one denomination dominates, such as North India and Thailand, where various churches pooled resources and united.

In our discussion group, however, few knew about Protestant led ecumenical movements, and few experienced an ecumenical spirit within their churches. Dong Gyun expressed that in his Korean Presbyterian heritage there are many internal struggles and many break-offs. Maintaining a distinct identity overshadows the desire for unity. Jin, who is also Korean but a Methodist, pointed out that his tradition remained united in Korea, and much emphasis is placed on staying together within that church, and not so much on communion with other Protestant denominations. The ecumenical spirit was so far removed from Jeff’s local congregation that he questioned whether Protestantism should be distinguished as a group for their ecumenical efforts.

The gulf between the lack of ecumenical awareness and engagement on a local level, and the reality of the ecumenical councils within Protestant churches may be explained by the fact that ecumenical movements seem to have taken place among higher levels of church leadership, far away from the pews. In the book Boundless Faith, Robert Wuthnow draws attention to the centrality of the local congregation rather than the commitment to denomination administration in the lives of American churchgoers. Dong Gyun felt that was right in many ways for it seemed to him that local pastors have a huge influence on whether or not a given congregation will engage in ecumenism. We were left with the important question of whether ecumenism could be more powerful if engaged from the ‘ground-up’ – from the local worshippers to the denominational leadership – and what consequences that might have for Protestants.

The Changing Contours of World Mission and Christianity: Christian growth in Africa

The Changing Contours of World Mission and Christianity: Christian growth in Africa:

Editor’s note: The following post arises from small group reflections from The Rise of Global Christianity, 1910–2010, taught by Dr. Todd Johnson at Boston University in the Fall of 2010. Lead by doctoral students, the small groups discussed lectures given by Christian scholars in various disciplines, including significant changes that have occurred in global Christianity over the past 100 years.

Our discussion in Global Christianity this week was launched from Dr. Todd Johnson’s presentation centered on the resurgence of Christianity in the global South. As Christians become more represented in the Global South – a trend that moves to better represent the distribution of the world’s population – two high growth areas of Christianity caught our attention. One is the growth of what The Atlas of Global Christianity terms “Marginal” Christians, a category that includes such organizations as Jehovah’s Witnesses and Mormons. Jin and Jeff questioned whether they be called Christian at all, even if the term ‘marginal’ serves as a qualifier. Although it is not an ideal term, it does capture the viewpoint that many more ‘traditional’ Christians hold. Jeff added to this standpoint: “It seems to me that Mormons are about as Christian as Muslims are Christian. Both have respect for Christ, but both insist that further prophetic revelation was necessary.”

The second area of Christian growth that caught our attention was Africa. Africa is the continent that has experienced the most significant growth in the Global South, particularly within the independent African Initiated Churches (AIC’s). Jin was quick to ask us what we think of the character of the African churches. To Jin, it seems that many African churches, especially AIC’s are a little different; aside from dealing with social concerns such as HIV/AIDS, they seem more interested in spiritual power and healing, and prefer more charismatic liturgy than in any other region of the world. It does seem that although they may have their own flavor, the message they preach, for example in spiritual healing, is inspired by accounts of such healings and exorcisms found in the New Testament. “I don't see a problem with the way they are exercising societal Christian practice,” Jeff suggested. “It seems in keeping with Christian history and tradition.” If the language African churches use follows the Bible and is Christ centered, what is it about some African Churches that might sound illegitimate? Can we identify what is behind our discomfort?

It does seem that the African context is rich in animistic traditions, and when Christianity moves in, it has to adapt to local cosmology. One question to ask is whether we can accept that some Christians believe in demons and spirits? Or should all Christians adopt a “western” cosmology? As Dong Gyun commented: “compared to the West, which is more rational and fond of systemization, Africans may have a cosmology that is more attuned to spirits and demons that others may see as unchristian.” He went on to draw from his experience: “Once you become a Christian in Korea, you cannot invoke spirits or pay heed to those practices of the past … There isn't any mixing of folk religion.”

I asked everyone what they would do if a woman came up to them convinced they were plagued by harmful spirits. Interestingly, despite all our reservations, not one of us thought that asking her to stop believing in her experiences would help her achieve spiritual wholeness. Jin shared that a similar episode happened to him. “It's a bit hard for me to discuss it, because when I share it, many people think I am weird. But as it is mentioned in the Bible, there are demons. I would like to do what Jesus did, and help her get rid of what is plaguing her.” I also shared that if I had been presented with this scene three years ago, I would have reacted by wanting to reconstruct the woman’s worldview. However, today I would be more open to meeting her somewhere closer to her own belief system.

Is that not, then, a strength of Christianity, and of the African churches that emphasize healing, to meet Africans where they are? Perhaps that is why in the last few decades Africans have been so successful at presenting the good news to other Africans because they can meet them where they are and bring about a sense of spiritual wholeness.

The Changing Contours of World Mission and Christianity: Religious Freedom and African Christianity

The Changing Contours of World Mission and Christianity: Religious Freedom and African Christianity:

Editor's note: The following post arises from small group reflections from The Rise of Global Christianity, 1910–2010, taught by Dr. Todd Johnson

at Boston University in the Fall of 2010. Lead by doctoral students, the small groups discussed lectures given by Christian scholars in various disciplines, including significant changes that have occurred in global Christianity over the past 100 years.

In our Global Christianity course this week we were fortunate to have a guest lecturer, Dr. Brian Grim, who spoke on the measurement of religious freedom in countries across the globe. Dr. Grim showed rankings in terms of social attitudes and government restrictions that pertain to religious freedom, broadly understood. Some of the countries that ranked in both extremes, high and low, were surprising to some of us. There are two South Korean master’s students in our discussion group. One student, Jin, was both interested and shocked that South Korea did not get a more severe rating. Although South Korea constitutionally guarantees freedom of religion, some of the Christians he knows experience some social pressures. Furthermore, Jin said that it was difficult to negotiate his pacifist beliefs with mandatory military service. Another South Korean, Dong Gyun, noted that there are many subtleties to religious freedom to consider. In our discussion we noted that although minorities may experience significant degrees of social pressurefrom family or friends, such as in South Korea where Christians are steadily increasing in number, the pressure is not strictly speaking restrictive or violent. There were also countries that ranked worse than we had expected, such as Indonesia. Most of us took for granted the common perception that Indonesia is a prime example of a moderate Islamic country – in fact it did not rank as low as we had anticipated.

The second major topic of discussion was about African Christianity. Africa is the continent that has experienced the most sizable Christian growth in the last 100 years. It was interesting to ask if people were aware of the growing Christian churches in Africa. Dong and Jin said that reading about African in regard to its religious diversity, as well as statistics, was new to them. Dong Gyun also made an interesting observation: “It seems to me that African churches are largely charismatic that are geared toward the religious experience.” I made the point that is it easy for us to categorize new churches in Africa as charismatic. Yet many of these churches that we regard as charismatic may actually be under the umbrella of ‘independent’ African Initiated Churches (AICs). Although AICs emphasize spiritual healing, lively music and liturgy, they may not be denominationally Pentecostal. One of the issues we kept returning to in our discussion of Africa was our presuppositions about these churches. Do we see the African churches as being more socially conservative than in America, for example? Jeff, who is from a Methodist congregation, says this is the standing assumption among many in his circles and a cause for concern, especially regarding the ordination and role of women. How, we asked, should we engage these different African Christians? As Jeff suggested, “I believe it is better that we engage African churches; so long as they strive to maintain a connection to the scriptures and the early church, we can still have a common ground from which to start discussions. That should serve as a decent basis for dialogue.”